Assessment page for species/group
MEASO Biota Assessment pages should be titled: MEASO Biota: Species name/group
The purpose of these assessment pages is to summarise basic information for a species or taxonomic group and how the status and ecology of the group may be changing over time (link here to the framework for assessing biota within the MEASO framework):
- General Description
- Autecology (species' ecology: life history, phenology, food, energetics, movement, rate processes)
- Habitat (physical environment, biological dependencies,Relationships, thresholds and limits )
- Population (distribution, status and trends in abundance)
- Synecology (species interactions: food webs, competitors)
- Assessments of status (critical state of population e.g. IUCN Red List)
- Contributing authors and experts
- References
Authors are encouraged to use the spatial partitioning of the marine ecosystem assessment (sectors etc - link here), as well as circumpolar information where available. Assessments of change can include, where possible, historical change, current trends and prognoses for future change. Generalities should be avoided and, instead, replaced with specific quantities of change and parameters, including error/uncertainty. Qualitative statements are acceptable provided the reasons for the qualitative conclusions are given, along with the scope for the application of the statements, and the uncertainty surrounding them.
In the case of Parameter Tables, authors are asked to include estimates of parameters and their error, wherever possible. Delete parameters that are not relevant. Add parameters that are relevant but not included in the tables. The reference/s estimating the parameters should be cited, along with any statements as to the maturity of the estimates if known (e.g. under development, personal communications, future work is examining.....). For some species, life history information and parameters are co-opted from areas outside of the subject area, e.g. from outside the Southern Ocean. This proxy information is reasonable to include. Please include also the rationale for co-opting these data, and citations.
Biota pages need to be written concisely, well-referenced, and using the uncertainty language of the IPCC. In the first instance, references can be from peer-reviewed literature, reports that are publicly available or references in the grey literature that could be obtained from repositories. If the information is known but the references cannot be sourced in the first instance that put a placeholder for filling in the citation. This is useful for translating common ideas into this assessment without worrying about the pedigree of the idea in the first instance.
Under each heading is a list of information (in red italics) that is desirable for that section. Please do not change these main headings. If needed, a section can be further subdivided. Please delete the red italics and the instructions window from the page when it is completed (when the page is in edit mode you can select it for deletion).
On photographs, figures and tables:
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All materials taken from libraries or references need to be cited appropriately, including photographs and text from web sites. See citation instructions (link here)
Other finalised MEASO Biota pages provide good examples of how to populate these assessments.
MEASO Assessment pages should be titled: MEASO Biota: Species name/group
The purpose of these assessment pages is to summarise basic information for a species or taxonomic group and how the status and ecology of the group may be changing over time (link here to the framework for assessing biota within the MEASO framework). Authors are encouraged to use the partitioning of the marine ecosystem assessment (sectors etc - link here) as well as circumpolar information. Assessments of change can include historical change, current trends and/or prognoses for future change. Ideally, assessments will be quantitative but can include qualitative statements as well. Estimates of error and points of critical uncertainty need to be identified where possible.
Final assessments need to be written concisely, well-referenced, and using the uncertainty language of the IPCC. In the first instance, references can be from peer-reviewed literature, reports that are publicly available or references in the grey literature that could be obtained from repositories.
Under each heading is a list of information (in red italics) that is desirable for that section. Please do not change these main headings. If needed, a section can be further subdivided. Please delete the red italics and this window from the page when you have completed it (when the page is in edit mode you can select it for deletion).
Other finalised MEASO Biota pages provide good examples of how to populate these assessments.
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
Description
Squid are important prey and predators, with about 18 species within the Antarctic Southern Ocean ranging from high Antarctic endemic to circumpolar species (Rodhouse 2013). They are primarily pelagic species often associated with particular water masses and frontal zones (Collins and Rodhouse 2006).
The standing stock of squid in Southern Ocean has been estimated at around 100 million tonnes (Okutani 1994) and some Southern Ocean species may consume in excess of 10% of their body weight per day (Jackson et al 1998a), thus the impact of predation by squid throughout the Southern Ocean is considerable. As such, squid represent an important mechanism by which energy is transferred from the pelagic nekton to the top trophic predators of the Southern Ocean.
Commercially exploitable squid exist in Antarctic waters which have been explored but, at present, there are large squid fisheries in water adjacent to the Antarctic. If full scale fishing takes place this would likely impact dependent predators and precautionary management from CCAMLR will be needed (https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/fish-and-squid/). This is particularly important as "squid have a short, semelparous lifecycle, so overfishing in a single year can cause a stock to collapse" Rodhouse and White (1995).
Antarctic Southern Ocean squid are mostly from the suborder Oegopsida (class Cephalopoda, superorder Decapodformes). The other suborder within Decapodformes, the Myospida is absent from the Antarctic Southern Ocean with the exception of the one species Doreuthis gahi that occurs of over the Southern Patagonian shelf (Rodhouse et al. 2014).
Taxonomic information from Collins and Rodhouse (2006) and Rodhouse et al. (2014), by functional groups:
| Functional Group | Family | Species | Maximum length and habitat | Distribution and northern extent (from Rodhouse et al. 2014) | Photo |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small nektonic squid | Gonatidae | Gonatus antarcticus | ML 350 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic, bathypelagic. | Sub-Antarctic, APF-STF |
|
Cranchidae | Galiteuthis glacialis | ML = 330 mm, circumpolar, bathypelagic, mesopelagic to lower epipelagic. | Antarctic endemic extending north of the STF |
Image: Galiteuthis glacialis, Tree of Life Project. | |
Brachioteuthidae | Slosarczykovia circumantarctic Brachioteuthis linkovskyi Brachioteuthis picta | ML = 90 mm, circumpolar, epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic. Probably the most abundant squid in the upper water column. | Antarctic endemic extending north of the SAF |
Image: Brachioteuthis picta, Wikipedia. | |
Neoteuthidae | Alluroteuthis antarcticus | ML = 270 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic and near bottom, often caught in the Atlantic sector (reference in Collins and Rodhouse 2006). | Antarctic endemic extending north of the APF |
| |
Large pelagic squid (muscular pelagic squid with hooked tentacles) | Onychoteuthidae | Flippovia ingens F. knipovitchi F. robsoni Kondakovia longimana | ML = 94 mm, near seabed from shelf to bathyal. ML = 450mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic near bottom. ML = 750 mm, circumpolar, circumpolar, pelagic, near bottom. ML = 1100 mm, circumpolar, epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic. | Sub-Antarctic, APF-STF Antarctic endemic extending north of the APF Southern Hemisphere extending south to APF. Antarctic endemic extending north of the SAF |
Image: Kondakovia longimana, Tree of Life Project. |
Ommastrephidae | Martialia hyadesi (Black quid) Todarodes filippovae (Antarctic flying squid) | ML = 500mm, circumpolar epipelagic, mesopelagic and near bottom from continental shelves to near-bathyal depths. ML > 500mm, circumpolar, epipelagic, mesopelagic and near bottom from continental slope. Both species are potential fishery target. | Sub-Antarctic, APF-STF Southern Hemisphere extending south to APF. |
Image: Martialia hyadesi, Paul Rodhouse. | |
Other mesopelagic and bathypelagic squid | Batoteuthidae | Batoteuthis skolops (Bush-club squid) | ML = 95mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic and bathypelagic | Antarctic endemic extending north of the STF |
Image: Batoteuthis skolops, Tree of Life Project |
| Histioteuthidae | Histioteuthis eltaninae Histioteuthis atlantica | ML = 105 mm, circumpolar and abundant North of the polar front ML = 258 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssopelagic | Antarctic endemic extending north of the STF Southern Hemisphere extending south to APF. |
Image: Histioteuthis eltaninae, Smithsonian NMNH | |
| Chiroteuthidae | Chiroteuthis veranyi | ML = 107 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic and bathypelagic | Cosmopolitan extending south to the APF |
Image: Chiroteuthis veranyi, Tree of Life Project | |
| Bathyteuthidae | Bathyteuthis abyssicola (Deep sea squid) | ML = 70 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic and epipelagic, juveniles epipelagic | Cosmopolitan extending south to the APF |
Image: Bathyteuthis abyssicola, Smithsonian NMNH | |
Mastigoteuthidae | Mastigoteuthis psychrophila | ML = 180 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic and bathypelagic | Antarctic endemic extending north of the APF |
Image: Mastigoteuthis psychrophila , Tree of Life Project | |
Cranchiidae | Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (Colossal squid) | ML = 2500 mm, circumpolar, bathypelagic and near bottom. | Antarctic endemic extending north of the APF |
| |
Psychroteuthidae | Psychroteuthis glacialis | ML = 440 mm, circumpolar, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, near bottom. | Antarctic endemic extending north of the SAF |
Image: Psychroteuthis glacialis, Wikipedia |
*ML = maximum mantle length, APF = Antarctic Polar Front, SAF = Sub-Antarctic Front, STF = Sub-trophical front.
Summary role in ecosystem
Squid are central in the Antarctic foodweb, they feed mainly on krill, macro-zooplankton and micro-nekton. Krill is the main food item of squid in the Antarctic. Squid are an important food source to other marine species including the sperm whale, which feeds on squid larger than 400 mm in mantle length (
Autecology
Life history
The parameters for the onychoteuthid model group are mostly based on the known biology and ecology of Flippovia ingens. This species is likely to comprise less than 30% of the total onychoteuthid biomass in the south-west Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean.
The parameters for the ommastrephid model group are based on the known biology and ecology of Martialia hyadesi. This species is the most conspicuous ommastrephid species in the south-west Atlantic CCAMLR area.
There is almost no specific age information for any species included in small nektonic squid. These squid are therefore considered to complete their life-cycle in one year, as observed for many other cephalopod species (Phillips 2004).
Parameters | Small nektonic squid | Onychoteuthid squid | Ommastrephid squid |
|---|---|---|---|
Maximum age | The ML of species included in this model group ranges between 111 – 500 mm (Maximum ML per species: G. antarcticus 350 mm; P. glacialis 440 mm; A. antarcticus 270 mm; B. ?picta 111 mm; G. glacialis 500 mm) (Nesis 1987; Rodhouse et al 1996). The mean ML consumed by the southern elephant seal ranges between 81 - 187 mm (Rodhouse et al 1991). | Estimates of age are based on statolith increment counts from New Zealand specimens of M.ingens, with the assumption that increments are laid down daily (Jackson 1997): 0 days < juveniles> 200 days; 200 days < adults > 400 days (Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein). | Life cycle completed in 12-14 months |
Average adult size | Adults exceed 200 mm ML (maximum size of different species: M. knipovitchi 450 mm ML; M. ingens 520 mm ML; M. robsoni 750 mm ML; K. longimana 1150 mm ML) (Nesis 1987). Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein | ||
Age at maturity | Martialia hyadesi start maturing late (at > 250-270 d), and males mature earlier than females. The youngest maturing male recorded in Arkhipkin & Silvanovich (1997) was 189 mm ML (age 249 d). The process of male maturation was rapid, with more than a half the males already maturing at ages 270-300 d, and all males older than 340 d were mature. The first maturing females were observed at ages 290-310 d (260-310 mm ML). Females matured at a wide range of sizes and ages (Arkhipkin & Silvanovich 1997). It is noted in Akhipkin & Silvanovich 1997 that female squid maturity appears more dependent on size than on age (with females the same age, but different sizes, displaying differential maturity). | ||
Size at maturity | |||
Spawning/breeding area | Spawns throughout the year, on shelf breaks/slopes in sub-Antarctic and high Antarctic and in open ocean. Three species included in this model group – A. antarcticus, B. ?picta and G. glacialis – are oceanic spawners that reproduce in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (Rodhouse & Piatkowski 1995). G. antarcticus is likely to spawn on the Patagonian Shelf edge or shelf break regions (Rodhouse & Piatkowski 1995). Paralarvae and juveniles of P. glacialis have a relatively inshore distribution (Rodhouse 1989) which may indicate that this species also spawns on the shelf edge or shelf break region, possibly in the high Antarctic. No further data are available on the reproduction of this model group. | Spawning is likely to occur in the bathypelagos and may be associated with the slope environment, although very little information is available on this (Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein). | Ommastrephids may spawn multiple times once they reach their spawning grounds (i.e. on the Patagonian Shelf slope) before completing their life cycle within 12-14 months (Boyle & Boletzky 1996). |
Spawning/breeding season | Two spawning peaks per year are apparent, these occur in late austral winter and late austral summer (Jackson et al 1998b; Cherel & Weimerskirch 1999). Onychoteuthids are semelparous, terminal spawners (Jackson & Mladenov 1994) and thus all adults die after spawning (Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein). | Spawning is likely to occur throughout the year on the Patagonian Shelf slope (Arkhipkin & Silvanovich 1997; Anderson & Rodhouse 2001). Squids occurring on the Patagonian shelf hatch mainly in spring and have higher growth rates than squids near South Georgia, which hatch in winter (Rodhouse 1991, Rodhouse et al. 1994). Existence of a spawning peak in spring on the Patagonian shelf has been confirmed by an analysis of the occurrence of mature females. | |
Larval/gestation period | |||
Location of recruits | Juveniles appear in the population during late austral winter/ spring and late austral summer/autumn (Jackson et al 1998b, Cherel & Weimerskirch 1999). Juvenile life stage excludes paralarvae, as records of paralarval onychoteuthids in the Southern Ocean are almost non-existent (see Phillips 2004) | ||
Size of recruits | |||
| Overall natural mortality rate | |||
Non-predation natural mortality rates | Juveniles are likely to experience a much greater mortality rate via predation than adults. Juveniles and adults are probably exposed to similar rates of mortality via by-catch from trawl fisheries (see Phillips 2004). Onychoteuthids are semelparous, terminal spawners (Jackson & Mladenov 1994) and thus all adults die after spawning. The natural mortality of the remaining adult population after spawning is 100%. Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein | Like all cephalopods, ommastrephids are semelparous spawners (although an individual may spawn multiple times once it has reached the spawning grounds). The natural mortality of the remaining adult population after spawning is 100%. |
*ML = Maximum mantle length
Migration, movement
Small nektonic squid
Brachioteuthis picta is the only species known to undertake diurnal vertical migrations, approaching the ocean’s surface during darkness. In addition, B. picta is the only species within this group that does not appear to undertake ontogenetic migrations to greater depths with increasing size or maturation (Rodhouse & Piatkowski 1995; Piatkowksi et al 1994).Diurnal vertical migrations exhibited by B. picta are likely to be related to diurnal vertical migrations of prey.
Onychoteuthid squid
Undergoes ontogenetic descent down slope over time with increasing size/maturation. Juveniles found from 0 – 1000 m (Phillips 2004).
Growth and associated maturation influences the movement of juvenile and adult life stages over the shelves and slopes throughout the year. The abundance of onychoteuthids in the diets of higher predators has been observed to fluctuate widely on an interannual basis (e.g. see Cherel & Weimerskirch 1999) suggesting that prey availability and oceanic variability are likely to have a great influence on the movement of populations. However, few data are available on these relationships for Southern Ocean onychoteuthids.
Diurnal vertical migrations have not been recorded. There is an ontogenetic shift down slope after roughly 6 months of age (Phillips 2004).
The abundance of onychoteuthids in the diets of higher predators has been observed to fluctuate widely on an interannual basis (e.g. see Cherel & Weimerskirch 1999) suggesting that prey availability and oceanic variability are likely to have a great influence on the movement of populations.
Ommastrephid squid
From Phillips 2004:
Ommastrephids including M. hyadesi exhibit diurnal vertical migrations, approaching the ocean surface during darkness and descending to depth during daylight (Rodhouse 1991). These migrations are most likely associated with the diurnal vertical distribution of prey.
Ommastrephids undertake large-scale migrations over thousands of kilometres to feed and spawn. Distribution is highly variable over time and space. It is proposed that M. hyadesi spawns along the Patagonian Shelf slope, where eggs and paralarvae undertake a passive migration to the north in the flow of the Falkland Current. As juveniles (e.g. under 150 mm ML), these squid follow return flow of Falkland Current to feed in areas of high productivity in the APFZ and along the Antarctic Polar Front (APF). Adults feed in productive areas along shelf breaks then migrate back to the Patagonian Shelf slope to spawn (Anderson & Rodhouse 2001). M. hyadesi hatches in relatively warm waters and migrates into cooler waters as juveniles (Rodhouse et al. 1994).
Spatial movement of ommastrephid squid in the Southern Ocean. Important prey groups for small and large squids are indicated (Reproduced from Phillips 2004).
Diet (foraging and consumption)
Most young squid feed on crustaceans and switch to fish later in life (Collins and Rodhouse, 2013). Cannibalism appears to be rather common in some species of squid (Nemato et al. 1985).
Small nektonic squid
Will only take pelagic, mobile prey. An individual squid may take prey as large as itself while continuing to take smaller prey. Small mesopelagic fish, small cephalopods, zooplankton including euphausiids, copepods and amphipod Themisto gaudichaudii (Phillips 2004).
Note that families listed in the table are only included if the family represents more than 10% of the diet. This restricted value is to avoid "trace" or very small dietary contributions. It can be altered if required.
Onychoteuthid squid
Distribution and dietary studies indicate that juveniles feed mostly on zooplankton (e.g. the most abundant and available species) and some juvenile fish (Phillips et al 2003a,b).
Minimum prey size >10 mm; maximum prey size <200 mm. Will only take pelagic, mobile prey. Crustaceans (in particular euphausiids, also amphipods and copepods), small cephalopods and juvenile fish. Distribution and dietary studies indicate that juveniles occupy the epipelagos in shelf/slope waters and feed mostly on zooplankton (e.g. the most abundant and available species) and some juvenile fish. At the Falkland Islands, the frequency of prey in the diet of juveniles is approximately 41% for crustaceans (e.g. Euphausia spp.), 33% for cephalopods and 26% for fish (e.g. juvenile notothenioids). Cephalod prey includes cannabalism on conspecifics.
Williams (2004) suggests that onychoteuthid squid should be removed from ecosystem models as a specialist krill predator.
Individual squid appeared to ingest surprisingly large numbers of fish (up to 100) during a single feeding period and could achieve feeding rates greater than 10% of their body weight per day (Jackson et al. 1998a). Feed mostly on myctophids, other mesopelagic/bathypelagic fish and cephalopods (Phillips et al 2003a). At the Falkland Islands, the frequency of prey in the diet of adults is approximately 59% for cephalopods, 59% for fish and only 2% for crustaceans (Phillips et al 2003b). Cephalod consumption includes a large proportion of conspecifics (Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein).
Kondakovia longimana known to feed onSmall euphausiids, Thysanoessa macrura, large chaetognaths, Sagitta gazellae, and the amphipod, Themisto gaudichaudii.
Ommastrephid squid
Existing dietary studies indicate that myctophid fish are the most important prey for M. hyadesi, with the remainder of the diet comprised of cephalopods (including cannibalism on conspecifics) and crustaceans. M. hyadesi may switch from a crustacean-based diet to a fish-based diet with increasing size. Studies have shown that up to 85% of diet composition is myctophid fish (Krefficthys anderssoni).
Energetics
No growth functions are available that adequately model the growth of squid (see Phillips 2004).
Parameters | Small nektonic squid | Onychoteuthid squid | Ommastrephid squid |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ingestion rate | Insert values and short citations here | ||
| Metabolism | |||
Fecundity | Estimates of total fecundity for individual females (as obtained from ovarian egg number estimates) range between 84379 – 286795 (Jackson 2001). | Estimates of potential fecundity for individual females (as obtained from ovarian egg number estimates) range between 115000 – 560000 (Laptikhovsky & Nigmatullin 1999). Reproductive success is likely to be highly dependent on oceanographic variables and prey availability, although these relationships are poorly understood. The entire life history of an individual that preceeds spawning is likely to influence its final reproductive condition. | |
Length-weight relationships | Growth in length is best described by the Gompertz function, whereas growth in weight is best described by a logistic function. See Arkhipkin & Silvanovich (1997) for growth rate formulae. Mantle length – total mass relationship for Martialia hyadesi from the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone and Patagonian Shelf Edge can be found in Rodhouse et al (1994). | ||
Growth rate | M. hyadesi is characterized by slow juvenile growth (<100 mm ML), fast growth of immature squids and a sharp decrease in growth rates during maturation. | ||
Size at age | All juveniles (minus those lost to predation, by-catch and natural mortality) move into adult life stage after 6-7 months (approx 200 days) measuring around 200mm ML. Not all squid at 200 days are sexually mature. This division into adult/juvenile is a size based one due to bimodal population distribution seen in trawl and prey data (see Phillips 2004). Adults exceed 200 mm ML (maximum size of different species: M. knipovitchi 450 mm ML; M. ingens 520 mm ML; M. robsoni 750 mm ML; K. longimana 1150 mm ML) (Nesis 1987). | Martialia hyadesi: the modal size of mature males and females was recorded to be 300-340 mm ML and 360-420 mm ML, respectively (Arkhipkin & Silvanovich 1997). The maximum size recorded for a mature female consumed by a wandering albatross at South Georgia was 506 mm ML (Rodhouse et al 1996). Maximum sizes for other ommastrephids which occasionally occur in the south-west Atlantic are 400 – 560 mm ML (for Illex argentinus and Todarodes cf angolensis, respectively) (Nesis 1987). | |
| Population Productivity (average life time) |
Habitat
Squid are almost ubiquitous within the Southern Ocean, existing on the shelves and slopes of the major landmasses and scattered sub-Antarctic islands, and also within the open ocean from the euphotic zone to the bathypelagic.
Most species are probably cirucmpolar but there are large gaps spatial gaps in distributional data. These areas are often those where predatory species are scarce or absent and have not been sampled by nets. More often associated with habitats of higher productivity including in the vicinity of islands, seamounts and mesoscale oceanographic features (Rodhouse et al. 2014).
Relationships, thresholds and limits
All members of endemic high latitude endemic fauna extend as far north as the APF and some as far south as SAF and STF, so have eurythermic temperature tolerance of at least 4oc (Rodhouse, 2013). Ocean temperature changes may change their northern and southern limits but not their ability to reproduce etc.
Observed or expected functional responses to different drivers
| Variable | Taxon size/stage impacted | Functional response (icon) | Parameters and uncertainties | Risk areas/regions impacted | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ocean acidification | larval/developmental phases |
| Potential abnormal statolith development leading to abnormal behaviour | Rodhouse, 2013 | |
Population
Range and Structure
Species specific distributions can be found in the description section.
Small nektonic squid
Shelves and slopes of landmasses and in the open ocean from the sub-Antarctic to the high Antarctic. Ubiquitous distribution throughout. Depths: 0 – ≥ 2000 m.
Onychoteuthid squid
Circumpolar distribution in sub-Antarctic and south of Antarctic Polar Front extending to the Antarctic continent; Adults onychoteuthid squid are associated with the slope in mesopelagic/bathypelagic depths, rarely found in waters less than 400m, distributed from 400 m to ≥ 2000 m. Present year-round. Associations with prey concentrations/oceanic clines are plausible but unknown.(Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein)
Distribution and dietary studies indicate that juveniles occupy the epipelagos in shelf/slope waters and feed mostly on zooplankton (e.g. the most abundant and available species) and some juvenile fish (Phillips et al 2003a). Some overlap in the distribution of juveniles and adults on the slope is observed (Phillips unpublished data).
Populations are thought to consist of up to two cohorts and therefore two life stages at a given time. Growth and associated maturation influences the movement of juvenile and adult life stages over the shelves and slopes throughout the year.
Ommastrephid squid
Shelves and slopes of landmasses and in the open ocean; aggregations associated with ocean frontal systems (Phillips 2004).
From Phillips 2004:
Circumpolar in the sub-Antarctic & Antarctic but not high Antarctic; Feeding and spawning migrations influence spatial distribution. Aggregations often associated with oceanic frontal systems. Distribution varies significantly over time and space, juveniles found over shelves/slopes, adults out in open water to a depth of 200m.
Ommastrephids are the most important family of cephalopods for commercial fisheries (Nesis 1987). The most conspicuous ommastrephid species in the south-west Atlantic CCAMLR area is the seven-star flying squid Martialia hyadesi. Illex argentinus is abundant on the Patagonian Shelf and supports a major fishery there, but this species is only rarely found south of the Antarctic Polar Front (Rodhouse 1991; Xavier et al 2002b) and is generally distributed outside the CCAMLR area. A third species Todarodes cf angolensis is distributed both within the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone and south of the Antarctic Polar Front in the Pacific and Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean (Australian Antarctic Division unpublished data; Cherel & Duhamel 2004) but has not been recorded in the Atlantic sector (Rodhouse pers comm.). Therefore, the parameters for the ommastrephid model group are based on the known biology and ecology of M. hyadesi. Martialia hyadesi is thought to be the most abundant cephalopod in the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone (APFZ), at least within the south-west Atlantic (Rodhouse et al 1996). As a rough estimate, M. hyadesi is likely to comprise over 85% of the total ommastrephid biomass in the south-west Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean.
Latest static map of distribution if available
Relative abundance in different sectors (importance of different sectors to the group)
Distributions maps from Rodhouse et al. 2014 for abundant/well studied squid species within the Antarctic Southern Ocean.
Map 9 = Galiteusthis glacialis
Map 11 = Histioteuthis eltaninae
Map 12 = Moroteuthis ingens
Map 14 = Martialia hyadesi
Dynamics
Limited data of abundance and trends over time.
Predictions from Rodhouse (2013):
- Temperature unlikely to have a major effect on squid but may influence/change the extent of their species range
- Changes in mesoscale oceanography likely to have a high impact
- Consequences of sea-ice change on the foodweb likely to effect squid
- Squid are fast evolving and thus may have the potential to adapt to changing pelagic conditions
Abundance information - general overview, comment on increases or decreases in population size and where/why?
Placeholder for trends in abundance in different sectors
Synecology
Consumers (predators)
Squid species are preyed upon by toothed whales, seals and sea birds (which my consume ~34 x106 t yr-) as well as fish (Collins and Rodhouse, 2013, Rodhouse, 2013).
Major prey species for grey-headed, wandering and light-sooty albatross. Emperor penguins are known to prey on squid smaller than 480 mm mantle length including species: Psychroteuthis glacialis, Kondakovia longimana, Gonatus antarcticus, Alluroteuthis antarcticus (Zimmer et al. 2007).
Small nektonic squid are preyed upon by many vertebrate predators that forage either at ocean surface or to depths of several hundred metres on slopes and in oceanic regions between APFZ and the Antarctic continent. In particular, G. antarcticus is abundant in the diets of predators foraging around the Falkland Islands and on the Patagonian Shelf, whereas P. glacialis is often the most important cephalopod species in the diets of predators foraging at higher latitudes. Three or more of these squids co-occur in the diets of 11 predators in the SW Atlantic (Phillips 2004 (EMM-04-26) and refs therein).
Mean size (mantle length) and mass of small-medium nektonic squid consumed by Patagonian toothfish around South Georgia (Xavier et al 2002a). All squid redrawn from Nesis (1987) except Brachioteuthis ?picta, redrawn from Mangold et al (1998). Images not available for Gonatus antarcticus (Reproduced from Phillips 2004).
Mean size (mantle length) and mass of Onychoteuthid squid consumed by Patagonian toothfish around South Georgia (Xavier et al 2002a), except Flippovia ingens: mean size consumed by Patagonian toothfish around Kerguelen & Crozet Islands (Cherel et al 2004) (mass of M. ingens is provided for an equivalent sized squid from the Falkland Islands, K. Phillips unpublished data). All squid redrawn from Nesis (1987). Images not available for Flippovia robsoni (Reproduced from Phillips 2004)
Mean size (mantle length) and mass of the Ommastrephid squid Martialia hyadesi as consumed by Patagonian toothfish around South Georgia (Xavier et al 2002a), All squid redrawn from Nesis (1987). (Reproduced from Phillips 2004).
Generally ecological opportunists with short generation times of squid make them more adaptable then slower-breeding (benthic) invertebrates. Are known for periods of rapid growth when exploited species have declined (Caddy and Rodhouse, 2017, Rodhouse, 2013 and refs therein). Their movement by oceanic currents make allow them to occupy new habitats or avoid local warming events (Rodhouse, 2013). Do not appear to depend on sea ice so unlikely to be directly impacted by sea ice loss. Climate change could lead to population expansion if squid utilise ecological niches lost by other taxa.
Competitors
Niche overlap with fish species, could be in competition evident when fish are exploited and there is an increase in squid populations.
Other interactions e.g. disease
Cephalopods are vulnerable to infection but by viruses but no pathogenic bacteria have been recorded in the wild (Hanlon et al. 1989b). Extreme events such as disease epidemics for squid are hard to include in modelling studies.
Human Impacts
Commercial fisheries for squid exist in close proximity to the Antarctic Southern Ocean, on the Patagonian shelf and slope boarding the Falkland Islands and around New Zealand. The Illex argentinus (Argentine shortfin squid) fishery in the south western Atlantic Ocean is known to catch the Antarctic species Martialia hyadesi as bycatch (Gonzalez and Rodhouse 1997, Dickenson 2004).
Over the last 30 years there has been occasional exploratory fishing expeditions in the South Atlantic sector targeting M. hyadesi but no fishery has been developed. However, precautionary catch measures have been set if the fishery were to become active (Rodhouse 1997).
Flippovia ingens represents a significant proportion of cephalopod by-catch in sub-Antarctic Patagonian toothfish trawl fisheries (Australian Antarctic Division unpublished data; Cherel & Duhamel 2004). Other species often take as krill bycatch include the two Brachioteuthid species Slosarczykovia circumantarctic and Brachioteuthis linkovskyi (Filippova, 2002).
Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (colossal squid) are an occasional by-catch in the South Georgia long-line fishery for Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) and the Ross Sea fishery for Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) (references in Rodhouse et al. 2014).
Assessments of Status
IUCN Red List
Add the following table or simply say 'None of these species has been assessed for the Red List'
Small nektonic squid
| Species: | Brachioteuthis picta | Gonatus antarcticus | Slosarczykovia circumantarctica | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year of classification: | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 | ||
| Red List Category & Criteria: | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern | ||
| Population trend: | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Number of Mature individuals: | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Assessment Justification: | Brachioteuthis picta is an oceanic species which has a wide geographic distribution and inhabits deep water where it is less susceptible to human impact. Its status to fisheries is currently undetermined, but in the light of what is known about this species, we consider it to be of Least Concern. However, further research is recommended in order to better understand the population dynamics, life history and ecology of this species. | Gonatus antarcticus has been assessed as Least Concern, due to its widespread distribution where it is unlikely to be impacted by human activities. As an Antarctic species it is protected by the Antarctic Treaty System, offering it some protection. However, further research is recommended in order to determine the population dynamics, life history and ecology, and potential threat processes affecting this species | We consider Slosarczykovia circumantarctica to be of Least Concern because it is not commercially fished and it occurs in an area protected by the Antarctic Treaty System. However, we know little about this species and further research is recommended in order to better understand the distribution, population dynamics, life history and ecology of this species. | ||
| Citation: | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Brachioteuthis picta. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T162956A957785. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T162956A957785.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Gonatus antarcticus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163362A1002013. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163362A1002013.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Slosarczykovia circumantarctica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species2014: e.T190917A1960926. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T190917A1960926.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. Translate page into: |
Onychoteuthid and Ommastrephid squid
| Species: | Kondakovia longimana | Martialia hyadesi | Todarodes filippovae |
|---|---|---|---|
| Year of classification: | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 |
| Red List Category & Criteria: | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern |
| Population trend: | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
| Number of Mature individuals: | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
| Assessment Justification: | Kondakovia longimana has been assessed as Least Concern. It has a wide geographic distribution in deep water where it is unlikely to be impacted by human activities. As it occurs in the Southern Ocean there is a potential future threat from global warming, however, as an Antarctic species it is also protected by the Antarctic Treaty System. It is also not targeted by fisheries and is unlikely to be in the future. | This oceanic species has a wide geographic distribution making it less susceptible to human impact. It is subject to only low fishing pressure in some regions of its distribution range. However, more research is still needed on its ecology and biology. | Todarodes filippovae has been assessed as Least Concern. This oceanic species has a wide geographic distribution, making it less susceptible to human impact. It is occasionally targeted by fisheries in some regions of its range and is sometimes taken as by-catch. However, more research is still needed on its ecology and biology. |
| Citation: | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Kondakovia longimana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163403A1005247. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163403A1005247.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Martialia hyadesi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163311A996411. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163311A996411.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Todarodes filippovae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T162900A951370. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T162900A951370.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. |
Other mesopelagic and bathypelagic squid
| Species: | Psychroteuthis glacialis | Batoteuthis skolops | Histioteuthis eltaninae | Histioteuthis atlantica | Chiroteuthis veranyi | Bathyteuthis abyssicola | Mastigoteuthis psychrophila | Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year of classification: | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 | 2014 |
| Red List Category & Criteria: | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern | Least concern |
| Population trend: | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
| Number of Mature individuals: | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
| Assessment Justification: | Psychroteuthis glacialis is an oceanic species which has been assessed as Least Concern, as it has a wide geographic distribution making it less susceptible to human impact. As an Antarctic species it is also protected by the Antarctic Treaty System. However, further research is recommended in order to determine the precise distribution, population dynamics, life history and ecology, and potential threat processes affecting this species. | Batoteuthis skolops has a widespread distribution in oceanic and deep-sea waters where it is unlikely to be impacted by human activity. It occurs in an area protected by the Antarctic Treaty System, offering its habitat some protection. This species is not targeted by fisheries and is unlikely to be targeted in the future and we therefore consider it to be of Least Concern. | Histioteuthis eltaninae is an oceanic species which has been assessed as Least Concern, as it has a wide geographic distribution, making it less susceptible to human impact. However, further research is recommended in order to determine the precise distribution, population dynamics, life history and ecology, and potential threat processes affecting this species. | Histioteuthis atlantica is an oceanic species which has been assessed as Least Concern, as it has a wide geographic distribution, making it less susceptible to human impact. However, further research is recommended in order to determine the precise distribution, population dynamics, life history and ecology, and potential threat processes affecting this species. | Chiroteuthis veranyi is an oceanic species which has a wide geographic distribution and inhabits deep water, making it is less susceptible to human impact. It has therefore been assessed as Least Concerrn. However, more research is still needed on the distribution, ecology and biology of this species, as very little is currently known. | Bathyteuthis abyssicola has a wide geographic distribution rendering it less susceptible to localized human impacts. It is currently not fished and is, in theory, also protected by part of its distribution overlapping a zone protected by the Antarctic Treaty System. It has therefore been assessed as Least Concern. | Mastigoteuthis psychrophila has a wide geographic distribution where it is unlikely to be impacted by human activities. However, as an Antarctic species it is also protected by the Antarctic Treaty System. It is one of the better known species of mastigoteuthids, but its true distribution is still unclear (and may change when we have a better taxonomic understanding of the family) and therefore we consider this species Data Deficient. Further research is recommended in order to determine the taxonomy, precise distribution, population dynamics, life history and ecology, and potential threat processes affecting this species. | Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni has a wide geographic distribution in deep water where it is unlikely to be impacted by human activities. As an Antarctic species it is also protected by the Antarctic Treaty System. It is also not currently targeted by fisheries. As a result, it has been assessed as Least Concern. However, more research is still needed on its ecology and biology. |
| Citation: | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Psychroteuthis glacialis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163026A964719. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163026A964719.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Allcock, L. & Barratt, I. 2014. Batoteuthis skolops. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163108A973433. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163108A973433.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Histioteuthis eltaninae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T162934A955048. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T162934A955048.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Histioteuthis atlantica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163310A996236. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163310A996236.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Chiroteuthis veranyi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T176066A1426277. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T176066A1426277.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Allcock, L. & Barratt, I. 2014. Bathyteuthis abyssicola. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163288A994060. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163288A994060.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Mastigoteuthis psychrophila. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T162980A959967. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T162980A959967.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. | Barratt, I. & Allcock, L. 2014. Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T163170A980001. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T163170A980001.en. Downloaded on 23 July 2019. |
Other
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References
A list of references referred to on this page.
Please use Ecology style, for more information and examples see:
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/13652745/author-guidelines
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People
Contributing authors
| Name | Affiliation |
|---|---|
| Madeleine Brasier | ACE CRC/IMAS |
| Cath Frampton | |
| Katrina Phillips |
Version history
Version number | Date of creation * | Expert reviewers | Peer reviewers | Date of completion* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1.0 | 2019.05.01 | |||
* Date format is YYYY.MM.DD
Citation
SOKI Wiki (2014) Tuesday 17 Sep 2019.
1 Comment
Christine Weldrick
Newly published article out here, "Mercury levels in Southern Ocean squid: Variability over the last decade" by Seco et al. 2019.
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